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Protestant religious revival in the early 19th-century United states of america

A Methodist camp coming together in 1819 (hand colored)

The 2nd Swell Enkindling was a Protestant religious revival during the early on 19th century in the Us. The Second Cracking Enkindling, which spread faith through revivals and emotional preaching, sparked a number of reform movements. Revivals were a cardinal function of the movement and attracted hundreds of converts to new Protestant denominations. The Methodist Church used circuit riders to reach people in frontier locations. The Second Great Enkindling led to a flow of antebellum social reform and an emphasis on salvation past institutions. The outpouring of religious fervor and revival began in Kentucky and Tennessee in the 1790s and early 1800s among the Presbyterians, Methodists and Baptists. The awakening brought comfort in the face up of dubiousness as a result of the socio-political changes in America.

It led to the founding of several well known colleges, seminaries, and mission societies. The Great Awakening notably altered the religious climate in the American colonies. Ordinary people were encouraged to make a personal connection with God, instead of relying on a minister. Newer denominations, such as Methodists and Baptists, grew apace. While the movement unified the colonies and boosted church growth, experts say^{[ which? ]} it also caused division.

Historians named the 2nd Great Awakening in the context of the Start Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1750s and of the Tertiary Great Awakening of the late 1850s to early on 1900s. The Second and Tertiary Awakenings were part of a much larger Romantic religious movement that was sweeping across England, Scotland, and Germany.^[one]

New religious movements emerged during the Second Great Enkindling, such as Adventism, Dispensationalism, and the Latter Solar day Saint movement.

Spread of revivals [edit]

Groundwork [edit]

Like the First Great Enkindling a half century earlier, the Second Smashing Awakening in North America reflected Romanticism characterized by enthusiasm, emotion, and an appeal to the supernatural.^[2] It rejected the skepticism, deism, Unitarianism, and rationalism left over from the American Enlightenment,^[3] about the same fourth dimension that similar movements flourished in Europe. Pietism was sweeping Germanic countries^[4] and evangelicalism was waxing strong in England.^[five]

The Second Swell Awakening occurred in several episodes and over unlike denominations; however, the revivals were very like.^[3] Every bit the almost effective form of evangelizing during this period, revival meetings cutting across geographical boundaries.^[6] The motion quickly spread throughout Kentucky, Indiana, Tennessee, and southern Ohio, equally well as other regions of the The states and Canada. Each denomination had assets that allowed it to thrive on the borderland. The Methodists had an efficient organisation that depended on itinerant ministers, known equally circuit riders, who sought out people in remote frontier locations. The excursion riders came from among the common people, which helped them constitute rapport with the frontier families they hoped to convert.

Theology [edit]

Postmillennialist theology dominated American Protestantism in the first one-half of the 19th century. Postmillennialists believed that Christ will return to earth afterwards the "Millennium", which could entail either a literal 1,000 years or a figurative "long period" of peace and happiness. Christians thus had a duty to purify gild in preparation for that return. This duty extended beyond American borders to include Christian Restorationism. George Fredrickson argues that Postmillennial theology "was an impetus to the promotion of Progressive reforms, as historians have frequently pointed out."^[7] During the Second Not bad Awakening of the 1830s, some diviners expected the millennium to arrive in a few years. By the late 1840s, however, the keen day had receded to the distant hereafter, and postmillennialism became a more than passive religious dimension of the wider middle-class pursuit of reform and progress.^[seven]

Burned-over district [edit]

Get-go in the 1820s, Western New York Country experienced a series of popular religious revivals that would later earn this region the nickname "the burned-over commune," which implied the surface area was set ablaze with spiritual fervor. This term, even so, was not used by contemporaries in the first half of the nineteenth century, as it originates from Charles Grandison Finney's Autobiography of Charles G Finney (1876), in which he writes: "I plant that region of country what, in the western phrase, would be chosen, a 'burnt district.' There had been, a few years previously, a wild excitement passing through that region, which they called a revival of organized religion, but which turned out to be spurious."^[8] ^[9] Charles Finney, a leading revivalist active in the area, coined the term.^[10] During this period, a number of nonconformist, folk religion, and evangelical sects flourished in the region, including the Mormons, Millerites, Adventists, Jehovah'due south Witnesses, and Shakers. Spiritualism was besides popular in Western New York during this period, with the Lily Dale community and the Fox Sisters playing a defining role in the motion's evolution.

The extent to which religious fervor actually impacted the region was reassessed in final quarter of the twentieth century. Linda K. Pritchard uses statistical information to prove that compared to the rest of New York State, the Ohio River Valley in the lower Midwest, and the land as a whole, the religiosity of the Burned-over District was typical rather than infrequent.^[11] More than recent works, however, have argued that these revivals in Western New York had a unique and lasting impact upon the religious and social life of the entire nation.^[12] ^[thirteen] ^[14]

West and Tidewater South [edit]

On the American frontier, evangelical denominations, particularly Methodists and Baptists, sent missionary preachers and exhorters to meet the people in the backcountry in an effort to support the growth of church membership and the formation of new congregations.^{[ citation needed ]} Another key component of the revivalists' techniques was the campsite meeting. These outdoor religious gatherings originated from field meetings and the Scottish Presbyterians' "Holy Fairs", which were brought to America in the mid-eighteenth century from Ireland, Scotland, and Britain'south border counties. Virtually of the Scots-Irish gaelic immigrants before the American Revolutionary State of war settled in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and downwardly the spine of the Appalachian Mountains in present-day Maryland and Virginia, where Presbyterian emigrants and Baptists held large outdoor gatherings in the years prior to the war. The Presbyterians and Methodists sponsored similar gatherings on a regular basis afterward the Revolution.^[fifteen]

The denominations that encouraged the revivals were based on an interpretation of man's spiritual equality before God, which led them to recruit members and preachers from a wide range of classes and all races. Baptists and Methodist revivals were successful in some parts of the Tidewater S, where an increasing number of mutual planters, plain folk, and slaves were converted.^[xvi]

West [edit]

In the newly settled frontier regions, the revival was implemented through army camp meetings. These often provided the first run across for some settlers with organized religion, and they were important as social venues. The camp meeting was a religious service of several days' length with preachers. Settlers in thinly populated areas gathered at the campsite meeting for fellowship every bit well as worship. The sheer exhilaration of participating in a religious revival with crowds of hundreds and perchance thousands of people inspired the dancing, shouting, and singing associated with these events. The revivals too followed an arc of great emotional power, with an accent on the individual's sins and demand to turn to Christ, and a sense of restoring personal salvation. This differed from the Calvinists' belief in predestination as outlined in the Westminster Confession of Faith, which emphasized the inability of men to save themselves and decreed that the only mode to be saved was by God's electing grace.^[17] Upon their return home, almost converts joined or created small local churches, which grew rapidly.^[18]

The Revival of 1800 in Logan County, Kentucky, began as a traditional Presbyterian sacramental occasion. The starting time informal camp meeting began in June, when people began camping on the grounds of the Red River Meeting House. Subsequent meetings followed at the nearby Gasper River and Muddy River congregations. All three of these congregations were under the ministry of James McGready. A year later, in Baronial 1801, an even larger sacrament occasion that is generally considered to exist America's showtime camp meeting was held at Cane Ridge in Bourbon County, Kentucky, under Barton Westward. Stone (1772–1844) with numerous Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist ministers participating in the services. The six-mean solar day gathering attracting peradventure as many as 20,000 people, although the exact number of attendees was not formally recorded. Due to the efforts of such leaders as Stone and Alexander Campbell (1788–1866), the camp meeting revival spread religious enthusiasm and became a major way of church expansion, peculiarly for the Methodists and Baptists.^[19] ^[20] Presbyterians and Methodists initially worked together to host the early camp meetings, but the Presbyterians somewhen became less involved because of the noise and often raucous activities that occurred during the protracted sessions.^[20]

Equally a result of the Revival of 1800, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church emerged in Kentucky and became a strong support of the revivalist movement.^[21] Pikestaff Ridge was also instrumental in fostering what became known as the Restoration Movement, which consisted of non-denominational churches committed to what they viewed as the original, cardinal Christianity of the New Testament. Churches with roots in this movement include the Churches of Christ, Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), and the Evangelical Christian Church building in Canada. The congregations of these denomination were committed to individuals' achieving a personal human relationship with Christ.^[22]

Church membership soars [edit]

1839 Methodist camp meeting

The Methodist circuit riders and local Baptist preachers made enormous gains in increasing church building membership. To a lesser extent the Presbyterians as well gained members, especially with the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in sparsely settled areas. Equally a result, the numerical strength of the Baptists and Methodists rose relative to that of the denominations dominant in the colonial period—the Anglicans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists. Among the new denominations that grew from the religious ferment of the 2d Great Awakening are the Churches of Christ, Christian Church building (Disciples of Christ), the Seventh-day Adventist Church building, and the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada.^[22] ^[23]

The converts during the Second Great Enkindling were predominantly female. A 1932 source estimated at to the lowest degree iii female converts to every two male converts between 1798 and 1826. Young people (those under 25) besides converted in greater numbers, and were the first to convert.^[24]

Subgroups [edit]

Adventism [edit]

The Appearance Movement emerged in the 1830s and 1840s in North America, and was preached past ministers such as William Miller, whose followers became known as Millerites. The name refers to belief in the soon Second Advent of Jesus (popularly known as the Second coming) and resulted in several major religious denominations, including Seventh-day Adventists and Advent Christians.^[25]

Holiness movement [edit]

Though its roots are in the First Great Awakening and earlier, a re-emphasis on Wesleyan teachings on sanctification emerged during the Second Neat Awakening, leading to a distinction between Mainline Methodism and Holiness churches.

Restoration Motion [edit]

The thought of restoring a "archaic" form of Christianity grew in popularity in the U.Southward. after the American Revolution.^[26] ^: 89–94 This desire to restore a purer form of Christianity without an elaborate hierarchy contributed to the evolution of many groups during the 2d Swell Enkindling, including the Latter Twenty-four hours Saints, Baptists and Shakers.^[26] ^: 89 Several factors made the restoration sentiment peculiarly appealing during this time catamenia:^[26] ^: 90–94

To immigrants in the early 19th century, the land in the United States seemed pristine, edenic and undefiled – "the perfect place to recover pure, uncorrupted and original Christianity" – and the tradition-bound European churches seemed out of place in this new setting.^[26] ^: 90
A primitive faith based on the Bible alone promised a style to sidestep the competing claims of the many denominations available and for congregations to observe balls of beingness right without the security of an established national church.^[26] ^: 93

The Restoration Movement began during, and was greatly influenced past, the Second Great Awakening.^[27] ^: 368 While the leaders of one of the two principal groups making upwardly this movement, Thomas Campbell and Alexander Campbell, resisted what they saw equally the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings, the revivals contributed to the evolution of the other major branch, led by Barton Westward. Stone.^[27] ^: 368 The Southern phase of the Awakening "was an of import matrix of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells.^[27] ^: 368

Culture and society [edit]

Efforts to apply Christian education to the resolution of social problems presaged the Social Gospel of the late 19th century. Converts were taught that to achieve salvation they needed not only to repent personal sin but also work for the moral perfection of guild, which meant eradicating sin in all its forms. Thus, evangelical converts were leading figures in a variety of 19th century reform movements.^[28]

Congregationalists fix upwardly missionary societies to deliver the western territory of the northern tier. Members of these groups acted equally apostles for the faith, and also as educators and exponents of northeastern urban culture. The Second Great Awakening served as an "organizing procedure" that created "a religious and educational infrastructure" across the western borderland that encompassed social networks, a religious journalism that provided mass advice, and church-related colleges.^[27] ^: 368 Publication and education societies promoted Christian education; almost notable among them was the American Bible Society, founded in 1816. Women made upward a large function of these voluntary societies.^[29] The Female Missionary Society and the Maternal Association, both active in Utica, NY, were highly organized and financially sophisticated women's organizations responsible for many of the evangelical converts of the New York frontier.^[30]

At that place were likewise societies that broadened their focus from traditional religious concerns to larger societal ones. These organizations were primarily sponsored by affluent women. They did non stalk entirely from the Second Not bad Awakening, but the revivalist doctrine and the expectation that 1's conversion would lead to personal activity accelerated the office of women's social benignancy work.^[31] Social activism influenced abolition groups and supporters of the Temperance motility. They began efforts to reform prisons and care for the handicapped and mentally sick. They believed in the perfectibility of people and were highly moralistic in their endeavors.

Slaves and free African Americans [edit]

Baptists and Methodists in the Southward preached to slaveholders and slaves akin. Conversions and congregations started with the Showtime Peachy Enkindling, resulting in Baptist and Methodist preachers being authorized among slaves and free African Americans more than a decade before 1800. "Black Harry" Hosier, an illiterate freedman who drove Francis Asbury on his circuits, proved to exist able to memorize large passages of the Bible verbatim and became a cantankerous-over success, equally popular amid white audiences as the black ones Asbury had originally intended for him to minister.^[32] His sermon at Thomas Chapel in Chapeltown, Delaware, in 1784 was the start to be delivered by a black preacher directly to a white congregation.^[33]

Despite being called the "greatest orator in America" by Benjamin Blitz^[34] and one of the all-time in the world by Bishop Thomas Coke,^[33] Hosier was repeatedly passed over for ordination and permitted no vote during his attendance at the Christmas Briefing that formally established American Methodism. Richard Allen, the other black attendee, was ordained by the Methodists in 1799, but his congregation of free African Americans in Philadelphia left the church there because of its bigotry. They founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) in Philadelphia. Afterward first submitting to oversight past the established Methodist bishops, several AME congregations finally left to course the first independent African-American denomination in the United states in 1816. Soon after, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church building (AME Zion) was founded equally some other denomination in New York Metropolis.

Early Baptist congregations were formed by slaves and free African Americans in Due south Carolina and Virginia. Particularly in the Baptist Church, African Americans were welcomed as members and every bit preachers. By the early on 19th century, contained African-American congregations numbered in the several hundreds in some cities of the South, such as Charleston, South Carolina, and Richmond and Petersburg, Virginia.^[35] With the growth in congregations and churches, Baptist associations formed in Virginia, for instance, besides equally Kentucky and other states.

The revival besides inspired slaves to demand freedom. In 1800, out of African-American revival meetings in Virginia, a plan for slave rebellion was devised past Gabriel Prosser, although the rebellion was discovered and crushed before information technology started.^[36] Despite white attempts to control independent African-American congregations, especially after the Nat Turner uprising of 1831, a number of African-American congregations managed to maintain their separation equally contained congregations in Baptist associations. Land legislatures^{[ which? ]} passed laws requiring them always to accept a white man present at their worship meetings.^[35]

Women [edit]

Women, who made up the bulk of converts during the Awakening, played a crucial role in its development and focus. It is not articulate why women converted in larger numbers than men. Various scholarly theories attribute the discrepancy to a reaction to the perceived sinfulness of youthful frivolity, an inherent greater sense of religiosity in women, a communal reaction to economic insecurity, or an assertion of the cocky in the face of patriarchal rule. Husbands, particularly in the Southward, sometimes disapproved of their wives' conversion, forcing women to choose between submission to God or their spouses. Church membership and religious activeness gave women peer support and identify for meaningful activity outside the home, providing many women with communal identity and shared experiences.^[37]

Despite the predominance of women in the movement, they were not formally indoctrinated or given leading ministerial positions. Still, women took other public roles; for instance, relaying testimonials nigh their conversion feel, or assisting sinners (both male and female) through the conversion process. Leaders such as Charles Finney saw women's public prayer as a crucial aspect in preparing a community for revival and improving their efficacy in conversion.^[38] Women also took crucial roles in the conversion and religious upbringing of children. During the period of revival, mothers were seen as the moral and spiritual foundation of the family, and were thus tasked with instructing children in matters of faith and ideals.^[39]

The greatest change in women'south roles stemmed from participation in newly formalized missionary and reform societies. Women's prayer groups were an early and socially adequate form of women's arrangement. In the 1830s, female moral reform societies apace spread beyond the North making it the first predominantly female person social motion.^[xl] Through women's positions in these organizations, women gained influence outside of the private sphere.^[41] ^[42]

Changing demographics of gender besides affected religious doctrine. In an effort to requite sermons that would resonate with the congregation, ministers stressed Christ's humility and forgiveness, in what the historian Barbara Welter calls a "feminization" of Christianity.^[43]

Prominent figures [edit]

Richard Allen, founder, African Methodist Episcopal Church building
Francis Asbury, Methodist, circuit passenger and founder of the Methodist Episcopal Church
Henry Ward Beecher, Congregationalist, son of Lyman Beecher
Lyman Beecher, Presbyterian
Antoinette Brownish Blackwell, Congregationalist and later Unitarian, the first ordained female government minister in the United states of america
Alexander Campbell, Presbyterian, and early leader of the Restoration Motion
Thomas Campbell, Presbyterian, then early on leader of the Restoration Movement
Peter Cartwright, Methodist
Lorenzo Dow, Methodist
Timothy Dwight 4, Congregationalist
Charles Grandison Finney, Presbyterian and anti-Calvinist, 2nd president of Oberlin Higher
"Black Harry" Hosier, Methodist, the first African American to preach to a white congregation
Adoniram Judson, early Baptist missionary.
Ann Lee, Shakers
Jarena Lee, Methodist, a female AME circuit rider
Robert Matthews, cult following every bit Matthias the Prophet
William Miller, Millerism, forerunner of Adventism
Asahel Nettleton, Reformed
Benjamin Randall, Gratuitous Will Baptist
Luther Rice, Baptist missionary to Bharat, and Baptist missionary in the US South
Joseph Smith, The Church building of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, early leader of the Restoration Movement
Barton Stone, Presbyterian non-Calvinist, then early on leader of the Restoration Motility
Nathaniel William Taylor, heterodox Calvinist
Ellen G. White, Seventh-day Adventist Church prophetess

Political implications [edit]

Revivals and perfectionist hopes of improving individuals and guild continued to increment from 1840 to 1865 across all major denominations, especially in urban areas. Evangelists oftentimes directly addressed issues such every bit slavery, greed, and poverty, laying the groundwork for later reform movements.^[44] The influence of the Awakening continued in the form of more secular movements.^[45] In the midst of shifts in theology and church polity, American Christians began progressive movements to reform society during this period. Known unremarkably as antebellum reform, this phenomenon included reforms against the consumption of alcohol, for women'due south rights and abolition of slavery, and a multitude of other issues faced by club.^[46]

The religious enthusiasm of the 2d Not bad Awakening was echoed by the new political enthusiasm of the 2d Party System.^[47] More than active participation in politics by more segments of the population brought religious and moral issues into the political sphere. The spirit of evangelical humanitarian reforms was carried on in the antebellum Whig party.^[48]

Historians stress the common agreement among participants of reform equally being a part of God's programme. Equally a result, local churches saw their roles in society in purifying the world through the individuals to whom they could bring conservancy, and through changes in the law and the creation of institutions. Interest in transforming the earth was applied to mainstream political action, as temperance activists, antislavery advocates, and proponents of other variations of reform sought to implement their beliefs into national politics. While Protestant religion had previously played an important role on the American political scene, the Second Great Awakening strengthened the role information technology would play.^[44]

Run into too [edit]

Appearance Christian Church
Christian revival
Christianity in the 19th century
The Church building of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
Ethnocultural politics in the United States
Holiness movement
Restoration Motion
Seventh-twenty-four hours Adventist Church

References [edit]

^ Christine Leigh Heyrman. "The Commencement Cracking Awakening". Divining America, TeacherServe. National Humanities Center.
^ Henry B. Clark (1982). Freedom of Religion in America: Historical Roots, Philosophical Concepts, Contemporary Problems. Transaction Publishers. p. 16. ISBN9780878559251.
^ ^a ^b Cott, Nancy (1975). "Young Women in the Second Great Awakening in New England". Feminist Studies. 3 (1): fifteen–29. doi:10.2307/3518952. JSTOR 3518952.
^ Hans Schwarz (2005). Theology in a Global Context: The Last Ii Hundred Years . Williamm B. Eerdmans. p. 91. ISBN9780802829863.
^ Frederick Cyril Gill (1937). The Romantic Motion and Methodism: A Written report of English Romanticism and the Evangelical Revival.
^ Lindley, Susan Hill (1996). Y'all Have Stept Out of Your Place: a History of Women and Religion in America. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 59.
^ ^a ^b George M. Fredrickson, "The Coming of the Lord: The Northern Protestant Clergy and the Civil War Crisis," in Miller, Randall One thousand.; Stout, Harry South.; Wilson, Charles Reagan, eds. (1998). Religion and the American Civil War. Oxford University Printing. pp. 110–30. ISBN9780198028345.
^ Whitney R. Cross, The Burned-over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Faith in Western New, 1800–1850 (1951)
^ Judith Wellman, Grassroots Reform in the Burned-over District of Upstate New York: Faith, Abolitionism, and Commonwealth (2000) excerpt and text search
^ Geordan Hammond; William Gibson (March 1, 2012). Wesley and Methodist Studies. Clements. p. 32. ISBN9781926798134.
^ Pritchard, Linda One thousand. (1984). "The burned-over district reconsidered: A portent of evolving religious pluralism in the United States". Social Science History. 8 (iii): 243–265. doi:10.2307/1170853. JSTOR 1170853.
^ Johnson, Paul (2004). A shopkeeper'southward millennium: club and revivals in Rochester, New York, 1815-1837 (1st rev. ed.). New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN9780809016358.
^ Kruczek-Aaron, Hadley (2015). Everyday religion: an archaeology of protestant conventionalities and practise in the nineteenth century. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. ISBN9780813055503.
^ Ferriby, Peter Gavin. "History of American Christian Movements: Introduction". Sacred Heart Academy Library. Sacred Heart University Library. Archived from the original on 2020-ten-01. Retrieved 9 June 2021.
^ Kimberly Bracken Long (2002). "The Communion Sermons of James Mcgready: Sacramental Theology and Scots-Irish Piety on the Kentucky Frontier". Periodical of Presbyterian History. lxxx (ane): 3–sixteen. ISSN 0022-3883. JSTOR 23336302. Run into also: Elizabeth Semancik (May 1, 1997). "Backcountry Religious Ways: The North British Field-Meeting Style". Albion's Seed Grows in the Cumberland Gap. Academy of Virginia. Retrieved Jan 9, 2019.
^ Holte, Jim (2019-11-11). Imagining the End: The Apocalypse in American Popular Civilisation. ABC-CLIO. ISBN978-i-4408-6102-iv.
^ "Religious Transformation and the Second Great Awakening". U.South. History Online Textbook. ushistory.org. 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2019.
^ Dickson D. Bruce Jr. (1974). And They All Sang Hallelujah: Apparently Folk Camp-Meeting Religion, 1800–1845 . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Printing. ISBN0870491571.
^ Douglas Foster, et al., The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement (2005)
^ ^a ^b Riley Case (2018). Faith and Fury: Eli Farmer on the Frontier, 1794–1881. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Gild Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN9780871954299.
^ 50. C. Rudolph (1995). Hoosier Faiths: A History of Indiana'due south Churches and Religious Groups. Bloomington: Indiana University Printing. pp. 117–22. ISBN0253328829.
^ ^a ^b Sydney East. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (2004)
^ Melton, Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)
^ Cott (1975), pp. 15–xvi.
^ Gary Country, Adventism in America: A History (1998)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^{due east} C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of the Churches of Christ, Abilene Christian Academy Press, 1988, ISBN 0-89112-006-8
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, ISBN 978-0-8028-3898-8, 854 pages, entry on Bang-up Awakenings
^ Elizabeth J.Clapp, and Julie Roy Jeffrey, ed., Women, Dissent and Anti-slavery in United kingdom and America, 1790–1865, (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2011): xiii–14
^ Barbara Welter, "The Feminization of American Religion: 1800–1860," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, edited past Mary Southward. Hartman and Lois Imprint. New York: Octagon Books, 1976, 139
^ Ryan, Mary (1978). "A Adult female's Awakening: Evangelical Organized religion and the Families of Utica, New York, 1800 to 1840". American Quarterly. 30 (v): 616–xix. doi:10.2307/2712400. JSTOR 2712400.
^ Lindley (1996), p. 65.
^ Morgan, Philip. Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry, p. 655. UNC Press (Chapel Loma), 1998. Accessed 17 October 2013.
^ ^a ^b Smith, Jessie C. Black Firsts: 4,000 Basis-Breaking and Pioneering Historical Events (third ed.), pp. 1820–1821. "Methodists: 1781". Visible Ink Press (Canton), 2013. Accessed 17 Oct 2013.
^ Webb, Stephen H. "Introducing Black Harry Hoosier: The History Behind Indiana's Namesake". Indiana Magazine of History, Vol. XCVIII (March 2002). Trustees of Indiana University. Accessed 17 Oct 2013.
^ ^a ^b Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The 'Invisible Institution' in the Antebellum Southward, New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 137, accessed 27 Dec 2008
^ Alan Brinkley, The Unfinished Nation, p 168
^ Lindley (1996), pp. 59–61.
^ Lindley (1996), pp. 61–62.
^ Ryan (1978), p. 614.
^ "Introduction" in What Was the Appeal of Moral Reform to Antebellum Northern Women, 1835–1841?, past Daniel Wright and Kathryn Kish Sklar. (Binghamton, NY: Country Academy of New York at Binghamton, 1999).
^ Ryan (1978), p. 619.
^ Lindley (1996), pp. 62–63.
^ Barbara Welter, "The Feminization of American Religion: 1800–1860," in Clio's Consciousness Raised, edited by Mary S. Hartman and Lois Banner. New York: Octagon Books, 1976, 141
^ ^a ^b Timothy L. Smith, Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Ceremonious War (1957).
^ Barbara Leslie Epstein, The Politics of Domesticity. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1981.
^ Alice Felt Tyler, Liberty's Ferment: Phases of American Social History from the Colonial Flow to the Outbreak of the Civil War (1944).
^ Stephen Meardon, "From Religious Revivals to Tariff Rancor: Preaching Costless Trade and Protection during the Second American Party System," History of Political Economy, Winter 2008 Supplement, Vol. 40, p. 265-298
^ Daniel Walker Howe, "The Evangelical Movement and Political Civilisation in the N During the Second Party Organisation", The Journal of American History 77, no. 4 (March 1991), p. 1218 and 1237.

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