Written Drama Was Probably the Most Significant Art Form of the Italian Renaissance

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Form of theatre originating in Italian republic

Commedia dell'arte Troupe on a Railroad vehicle in a Town Square by Jan Miel (1640)

Commedia dell'arte (;^[i] ^[ii] Italian: [komˈmɛːdja delˈlarte]; lit. 'comedy of the profession')^[three] was an early on grade of professional theatre, originating in Italy, that was popular throughout Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries.^[4] ^[5] Information technology was formerly called Italian comedy in English and is also known every bit commedia alla maschera , commedia improvviso , and commedia dell'arte all'improvviso .^[6] Characterized by masked "types", commedia was responsible for the rise of actresses such as Isabella Andreini^[vii] and improvised performances based on sketches or scenarios.^[8] ^[9] A commedia , such every bit The Tooth Puller, is both scripted and improvised.^[8] ^[10] Characters' entrances and exits are scripted. A special feature of commedia is the lazzo , a joke or "something foolish or witty", normally well known to the performers and to some extent a scripted routine.^[10] ^[11] Another characteristic of commedia is pantomime, which is more often than not used by the character Arlecchino, now better known as Harlequin.^[12]

The characters of the commedia unremarkably represent fixed social types and stock characters, such every bit foolish quondam men, stray servants, or military officers full of false blowing.^[8] ^[13] The characters are exaggerated "real characters", such as a know-it-all doctor called Il Dottore, a greedy sometime human chosen Pantalone, or a perfect human relationship like the Innamorati.^[vii] Many troupes were formed to perform commedia , including I Gelosi (which had actors such as Andreini and her husband Francesco Andreini),^[fourteen] Confidenti Troupe, Desioi Troupe, and Fedeli Troupe.^[seven] ^[8] Commedia was oftentimes performed outside on platforms or in popular areas such as a piazza (town square).^[6] ^[8] The form of theatre originated in Italy, only travelled throughout Europe and even to Moscow.^[15]

The genesis of commedia may exist related to carnival in Venice, where the author and actor Andrea Calmo had created the character Il Magnifico, the precursor to the vecchio (quondam man) Pantalone, past 1570. In the Flaminio Scala scenario, for example, Il Magnifico persists and is interchangeable with Pantalone into the 17th century. While Calmo's characters (which also included the Spanish Capitano and a dottore type) were non masked, it is uncertain at what signal the characters donned the mask. Withal, the connection to carnival (the period between Epiphany and Ash Wednesday) would suggest that masking was a convention of carnival and was applied at some signal. The tradition in Northern Italia is centred in Florence, Mantua, and Venice, where the major companies came under the protection of the various dukes. Concomitantly, a Neapolitan tradition emerged in the southward and featured the prominent stage effigy Pulcinella, which has been long associated with Naples and derived into various types elsewhere—virtually famously as the puppet character Punch (of the eponymous Punch and Judy shows) in England.

History [edit]

Claude Gillot (1673–1722), Four Commedia dell'arte Figures: Three Gentlemen and Pierrot, c. 1715

Although commedia dell'arte flourished in Italy during the Mannerist period, in that location has been a long-continuing tradition of trying to constitute historical antecedents in antiquity. While it is possible to notice formal similarities between the commedia dell'arte and earlier theatrical traditions, there is no way to establish certainty of origin.^[16] Some date the origins to the period of the Roman Republic (Plautine types) or the Empire (Atellan Farces). The Atellan Farces of the Roman Empire featured rough "types" wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features and an improvised plot.^[17] Some historians argue that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus+Buccus, and Manducus, are the primitive versions of the commedia characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and il Capitano.^[18] ^[19] ^[20] More recent accounts establish links to the medieval jongleurs, and prototypes from medieval moralities, such equally Hellequin (as the source of Harlequin, for example).^[21]

The first recorded commedia dell'arte performances came from Rome as early on as 1551.^[22] Commedia dell'arte was performed outdoors in temporary venues by professional person actors who were costumed and masked, equally opposed to commedia erudita ,^[a] which were written comedies, presented indoors by untrained and unmasked actors.^[24] This view may exist somewhat romanticized since records describe the Gelosi performing Tasso's Aminta, for case, and much was done at courtroom rather than in the street. By the mid-16th century, specific troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce, and past 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. In keeping with the tradition of the Italian Academies, I Gelosi adopted as their impress (or coat of arms) the two-faced Roman god Janus. Janus symbolized both the comings and goings of this travelling troupe and the dual nature of the actor who impersonates the "other." The Gelosi performed in Northern Italy and France where they received protection and patronage from the Rex of France. Despite fluctuations the Gelosi maintained stability for performances with the "usual ten": "2 vecchi (old men), iv innamorati (2 male and 2 female person lovers), two zanni , a helm and a servetta (serving maid)".^[25] Commedia often performed inside in court theatres or halls, and also as some fixed theatres such as Teatro Baldrucca in Florence. Flaminio Scala, who had been a minor performer in the Gelosi published the scenarios of the commedia dell'arte effectually the starting time of the 17th century, really in an effort to legitimize the form—and ensure its legacy. These scenarios are highly structured and congenital around the symmetry of the various types in duet: ii zanni , vecchi , inamorate and inamorati , etc.

In commedia dell'arte , female roles were played past women, documented as early as the 1560s, making them the commencement known professional actresses in Europe since artifact. Lucrezia Di Siena, whose name is on a contract of actors from 10 Oct 1564, has been referred to every bit the first Italian actress known by name, with Vincenza Armani and Barbara Flaminia equally the get-go primadonnas and the offset well-documented actresses in Italy (and Europe).^[26] In the 1570s, English theatre critics more often than not denigrated the troupes with their female actors (some decades later, Ben Jonson referred to one female performer of the commedia as a "tumbling whore"). Past the end of the 1570s, Italian prelates attempted to ban female person performers; however, by the terminate of the 16th century, actresses were standard on the Italian phase.^[27] The Italian scholar Ferdinando Taviani has collated a number of church documents opposing the appearance of the actress as a kind of courtesan, whose scanty attire and promiscuous lifestyle corrupted immature men, or at least infused them with lecherous desires. Taviani's term negativa poetica describes this and other practices offensive to the church, while giving us an idea of the phenomenon of the commedia dell'arte performance.

By the early on 17th century, the zanni comedies were moving from pure improvisational street performances to specified and clearly delineated acts and characters. 3 books written during the 17th century—Cecchini's [it] Fruti della moderne commedia (1628), Niccolò Barbieri's La supplica (1634) and Perrucci's Dell'arte rapresentativa (1699—"made firm recommendations concerning performing practice." Katritzky argues, that equally a result, commedia was reduced to formulaic and stylized interim; equally far as possible from the purity of the improvisational genesis a century earlier.^[28] In France, during the reign of Louis 14, the Comédie-Italienne created a repertoire and delineated new masks and characters, while deleting some of the Italian precursors, such as Pantalone. French playwrights, particularly Molière, gleaned from the plots and masks in creating an indigenous treatment. Indeed, Molière shared the phase with the Comédie-Italienne at Petit-Bourbon, and some of his forms, east.g. the tirade, are derivative from the commedia ( tirata ).

Commedia dell'arte moved outside the metropolis limits to the théâtre de la foire , or fair theatres, in the early 17th century as it evolved toward a more pantomimed style. With the dispatch of the Italian comedians from French republic in 1697, the form transmogrified in the 18th century as genres such as comédie larmoyante gained in attraction in French republic, peculiarly through the plays of Marivaux. Marivaux softened the commedia considerably by bringing in true emotion to the phase. Harlequin achieved more prominence during this catamenia.

It is possible that this kind of improvised interim was passed downwards the Italian generations until the 17th century when it was revived as a professional person theatrical technique. However, equally currently used the term commedia dell'arte was coined in the mid-18th century.^[29]

Curiously, commedia dell'arte was equally if non more pop in French republic, where it continued its popularity throughout the 17th century (until 1697), and it was in France that commedia adult its established repertoire. Commedia evolved into various configurations across Europe, and each land acculturated the form to its liking. For example, pantomime, which flourished in the 18th century, owes its genesis to the graphic symbol types of the commedia , particularly Harlequin. The Dial and Judy puppet shows, popular to this day in England, owe their basis to the Pulcinella mask that emerged in Neapolitan versions of the grade. In Italy, commedia masks and plots found their fashion into the opera buffa , and the plots of Rossini, Verdi, and Puccini.

During the Napoleonic occupation of Italy, instigators of reform and critics of French Imperial dominion (such as Giacomo Casanova) used the carnival masks to hide their identities while fueling political agendas, challenging social dominion and hurling blatant insults and criticisms at the regime. In 1797, in social club to destroy the impromptu style of carnival as a partisan platform, Napoleon outlawed the commedia dell'arte. It was non reborn in Venice until 1979 because of this.^[30]

Companies [edit]

Commedia dell'arte troupe I Gelosi in a late 16th-century Flemish painting

Compagnie , or companies, were troupes of actors, each of whom had a specific function or office. Actors were versed in a plethora of skills, with many having joined troupes without a theatre background. Some were doctors, others priests, others soldiers, enticed past the excitement and prevalence of theatre in Italian social club. Actors were known to switch from troupe to troupe "on loan," and companies would ofttimes interact if unified by a single patron or performing in the aforementioned general location.^[31] Members would too splinter off to form their own troupes, such was the example with the Ganassa and the Gelosi. These compagnie travelled throughout Europe from the early period, showtime with the Soldati, then, the Ganassa, who travelled to Spain,^[32] and were famous for playing the guitar and singing—never to be heard from over again—and the famous troupes of the Golden Age (1580–1605): Gelosi, Confidenti, Accessi. These names which signified daring and enterprise were appropriated from the names of the academies—in a sense, to lend legitimacy. However, each troupe had its impresse (like a glaze of arms) which symbolized its nature. The Gelosi, for example, used the ii-headed confront of the Roman god Janus, to signify its comings and goings and relationship to the season of Funfair, which took place in Jan. Janus also signified the duality of the actor, who is playing a character or mask, while still remaining oneself.

Magistrates and clergy were not always receptive to the travelling compagnie (companies), especially during periods of plague, and because of their itinerant nature. Actors, both male and female, were known to strip nearly naked, and storylines typically descended into crude situations with overt sexuality, considered to teach naught just "lewdness and adultery...of both sexes" past the French Parliament.^[33] The term vagabondi was used in reference to the comici , and remains a derogatory term to this mean solar day (vagabond). This was in reference to the nomadic nature of the troupes, often instigated by persecution from the Church, civil authorities, and rival theatre organisations that forced the companies to move from identify to place.

A troupe often consisted of 10 performers of familiar masked and unmasked types, and included women.^[25] The companies would employ carpenters, props masters, servants, nurses, and prompters, all of whom would travel with the company. They would travel in large carts laden with supplies necessary for their nomadic style of performance, enabling them to move from place to place without having to worry about the difficulties of relocation. This nomadic nature, though influenced by persecution, was also largely due in office to the troupes requiring new (and paying) audiences. They would take advantage of public fairs and celebrations, virtually frequently in wealthier towns where financial success was more probable. Companies would also find themselves summoned by loftier-ranking officials, who would offering patronage in render for performing in their land for a certain amount of time. Companies in fact preferred to not stay in any 1 place likewise long, mostly out of a fearfulness of the deed condign "stale." They would motion on to the next location while their popularity was still agile, ensuring the towns and people were pitiful to come across them leave, and would be more than likely to either invite them back or pay to watch performances again should the troupe ever return.^[34] Prices were dependent on the troupe's decision, which could vary depending on the wealth of the location, the length of stay, and the regulations governments had in place for dramatic performances.

List of known commedia troupes [edit]

Compagnia dei Fedeli: active 1601–52, with Giambattista Andreini
Compagnia degli Accesi: active 1590–1628
Compagnia degli Uniti [it]: active 1578–1640
Compagnia dei Confidenti: active 1574–99; reformed under Flaminio Scala, operated over again 1611–39
I Dedosi: agile 1581–99
I Gelosi: active 1568–1604
Signora Violante and Her Troupe of Dancers: active 1729–32^[35]
Zan Ganassa: active 1568–1610

^[36]

Characters [edit]

By and large, the actors playing were diverse in background in terms of course and religion, and performed anywhere they could. Castagno posits that the aesthetic of exaggeration, distortion, anti-humanism (as in the masked types), and excessive borrowing as opposed to originality was typical of all the arts in the tardily Italian Renaissance.^[37] Theatre historian Martin Green points to the extravagance of emotion during the period of commedia 'due south emergence as the reason for representational moods, or characters, that define the art. In commedia , each character embodies a mood: mockery, sadness, gaiety, confusion, and and then forth.^[38]

According to 18th-century London theatre critic Baretti, commedia dell'arte incorporates specific roles and characters that were "originally intended as a kind of characteristic representative of some particular Italian district or town." (archetypes)^[29] ^[39] The grapheme's persona included the specific dialect of the region or boondocks represented. Significant that on stage, each character was performed in its own dialect. Characters would oft exist passed down from generation to generation, and characters married onstage were often married in real life as well, seen most famously with Francesco and Isabella Andreini. This was believed to make performances more natural, as well every bit strengthening the bonds within the troupe, who emphasized complete unity between every fellow member. Additionally, each character has a singular costume and mask that is representative of the character's office.^[29]

Commedia dell'arte has iv stock character groups:^[xiii]

Zanni : servants, clowns; characters such as Arlecchino (also known as Harlequin), Brighella, Scapino, Pulcinella and Pedrolino^[40]
Vecchi : wealthy old men, masters; characters such every bit Pantalone and Il Dottore
Innamorati : young upper class lovers; who would have names such as Flavio and Isabella
Il Capitano : cocky-styled captains, braggarts; can also be La Signora if a female person

Masked characters are frequently referred to every bit "masks" (in Italian: maschere ), which, co-ordinate to John Rudlin, cannot be separated from the graphic symbol. In other words, the characteristics of the graphic symbol and the characteristics of the mask are the same.^[41] In time however, the word maschere came to refer to all of the characters of the commedia dell'arte whether masked or not. Female person characters (including female servants) are most often non masked (female person amorose are never masked). The female person character in the masters group is called Prima Donna and can be ane of the lovers. There is also a female graphic symbol known equally The Courtisane who can also have a servant. Female servants wore bonnets. Their graphic symbol was played with a malicious wit or gossipy gaiety. The amorosi are often children of a male grapheme in the masters group, but not of whatever female character in the masters group, which may stand for younger women who have e.m. married an old homo, or a high-form courtesan. Female characters in the masters group, while younger than their male person counterparts, are nevertheless older than the amorosi . Some of the amend known commedia dell'arte characters are Pierrot and Pierrette, Pantalone, Gianduja, Il Dottore, Brighella, Il Capitano, Colombina, the innamorati , Pedrolino, Pulcinella, Arlecchino, Sandrone, Scaramuccia (also known as Scaramouche), La Signora, and Tartaglia.

Curt list of characters^[42]
Graphic symbol(s)	Masks	Status	Costume
Arlecchino	Yes	Servant (sometimes to ii masters)	Colorful tight-fitting jacket and trousers
Pulcinella	Yes	Retainer or master	Baggy, white outfit
Il Dottore	Aye	Head of the household	Blackness scholarly robe
Il Capitano/La Signora	Yes	Indigent loner	Military compatible
Innamorati	No	High-class hopeless lovers	Nicely dressed on par with the fourth dimension
Pantalone	Yep	Older wealthy man	Dark capes and ruddy trousers
Tartaglia	Aye	Stuttering statesman	Large felt hat and enormous cloak
Colombina	Yes	Perky maid / retainer	Can be colourful on par with Arlecchino or black and white
Pierrot	Yes	Servant (Sad clown)	White, flowy costume with big buttons

In the 17th century as commedia became pop in France, the characters of Pierrot, Columbine and Harlequin were refined and became essentially Parisian, according to Dark-green.^[43]

Costumes [edit]

Each character in commedia dell'arte has a distinct costume that helps the audience understand who the graphic symbol is.

Arlecchino originally wore a tight fitting long jacket with matching trousers that both had numerous odd shaped patches, unremarkably green, yellow, red, and brown.^[44] ^[45] Usually, there was a bat and a wallet that would hang from his belt.^[45] His hat, which was a soft cap, was modeled after Charles IX or after Henri Ii, and almost always had a tail of a rabbit, hare or a fox with the occasional tuft of feathers.^[45] ^[44] During the 17th century, the patches turned into blue, cherry-red, and green triangles bundled in a symmetrical pattern.^[45] The 18th century is when the iconic Arlecchino look with the diamond shaped lozenges took shape. The jacket became shorter and his hat changed from a soft cap to a double pointed lid.^[45]

Il Dottore'due south costume was a play on the bookish dress of the Bolognese scholars.^[45] ^[44] Il Dottore is almost always clothed entirely in blackness.^[45] He wore a long blackness gown or jacket that went below the knees.^[45] ^[44] Over the gown, he would have a long black robe that went down to his heels, and he would take on black shoes, stockings, and breeches.^[45] ^[44] In 1653, his costume was changed by Augustin Lolli who was a very popular Il Dottore thespian. He added an enormous black hat, inverse the robe to a jacket cutting similarly to Louis XIV, and added a flat ruff to the neck.^[45]

Il Capitano'southward costume is similar to Il Dottore'south in the fact that information technology is likewise a satire on armed forces habiliment of the time.^[44] This costume would therefore modify depending on where the Capitano character is from, and the period the Capitano is from.^[44] ^[45]

Pantalone has i of the most iconic costumes of commedia dell'arte . Typically, he would wear a tight-fitting jacket with a matching pair of trousers. He ordinarily pairs these two with a large blackness glaze called a zimarra .^[45] ^[44]

Women, who usually played servants or lovers, wore less stylized costumes than the men in commedia . The lovers, Innamorati , would clothing what was considered to be the fashion of the time period. They would just vesture plain half-masks with no character distinction or street makeup.

Subjects [edit]

Conventional plot lines were written on themes of sex, jealousy, love, and onetime age. Many of the basic plot elements tin be traced back to the Roman comedies of Plautus and Terence, some of which were themselves translations of lost Greek comedies of the 4th century BC. Still, information technology is more probable that the comici used contemporary novella, or, traditional sources besides, and drew from current events and local news of the day. Not all scenari were comic, at that place were some mixed forms and even tragedies. Shakespeare's The Tempest is drawn from a popular scenario in the Scala collection, his Polonius (Hamlet) is drawn from Pantalone, and his clowns bear homage to the zanni .

Comici performed written comedies at court. Song and dance were widely used, and a number of innamorati were skilled madrigalists, a song form that uses chromatics and close harmonies. Audiences came to meet the performers, with plotlines condign secondary to the operation. Among the great innamorate , Isabella Andreini was perhaps the most widely known, and a medallion dedicated to her reads "eternal fame". Tristano Martinelli accomplished international fame every bit the first of the slap-up Arlecchinos, and was honoured by the Medici and the Queen of France. Performers fabricated apply of well-rehearsed jokes and stock physical gags, known every bit lazzi and concetti , as well every bit on-the-spot improvised and interpolated episodes and routines, called burle (singular burla , Italian for 'joke'), usually involving a practical joke.

Since the productions were improvised, dialogue and action could hands exist changed to satirize local scandals, current events, or regional tastes, while notwithstanding using old jokes and punchlines. Characters were identified by costumes, masks, and props, such as a blazon of baton known as a slapstick. These characters included the forebears of the modern clown, namely Harlequin ( Arlecchino ) and the zanni. Harlequin, in item, was allowed to comment on current events in his entertainment.^[46]

The classic, traditional plot is that the innamorati are in beloved and wish to be married, but i elderberry ( vecchio ) or several elders ( vecchi ) are preventing this from happening, leading the lovers to ask ane or more zanni (eccentric servants) for assist. Typically the story ends happily, with the union of the innamorati and forgiveness for any wrongdoings. In that location are countless variations on this story, as well as many that diverge wholly from the structure, such every bit a well-known story almost Arlecchino condign mysteriously pregnant, or the Punch and Judy scenario.^{[ citation needed ]}

While generally personally unscripted, the performances oftentimes were based on scenarios that gave some semblance of a plot to the largely improvised format. The Flaminio Scala scenarios, published in the early 17th century, are the about widely known collection and representative of its about esteemed compagnia , I Gelosi.

Influence in visual art [edit]

The iconography of the commedia dell'arte represents an entire field of study that has been examined by commedia scholars such every bit Erenstein, Castagno, Katritzky, Molinari, and others. In the early period, representative works by painters at Fontainebleau were notable for their erotic depictions of the thinly veiled innamorata , or the bare-breasted courtesan/actress.

The Flemish influence is widely documented as commedia figures entered the earth of the vanitas genre, depicting the dangers of lust, drinking, and the hedonistic lifestyle. Castagno describes the Flemish pittore vago (wandering painters) who assimilated themselves within Italian workshops and fifty-fifty assumed Italian surnames: one of the nearly influential painters, Lodewyk Toeput, for example, became Ludovico Pozzoserrato and was a celebrated painter in the Veneto region of Italy. The pittore vago can be attributed with establishing commedia dell'arte every bit a genre of painting that would persist for centuries.

While the iconography gives testify of the performance way (see Fossard collection), it is important to note that many of the images and engravings were not depictions from real life, but concocted in the studio. The Callot etchings of the Balli di Sfessania (1611) are most widely considered capricci rather than actual depictions of a commedia dance form, or typical masks. While these are often reproduced in large formats, it is important to note that the bodily prints measured nearly 2×3 inches. In the 18th century, Watteau'south painting of commedia figures intermingling with the elite were ofttimes set in sumptuous garden or pastoral settings and were representative of that genre.

Pablo Picasso'due south 1921 painting Three Musicians is a colorful representation of commedia -inspired characters.^[47] Picasso also designed the original costumes for Stravinsky's Pulcinella (1920), a ballet depicting commedia characters and situations. Commedia iconography is evident in porcelain figurines many selling for thousands of dollars at sale.

Influence in performance art [edit]

The expressive theatre influenced Molière's one-act and later ballet d'action , thus lending a fresh range of expression and choreographic ways. An instance of a commedia dell'arte character in literature is the Pied Piper of Hamelin who is dressed as Harlequin.

Music and dance were central to commedia dell'arte performance, and most performances had both instrumental and vocal music in them.^[48] Brighella was often depicted with a guitar, and many images of the commedia feature singing innamorati or dancing figures. In fact, it was considered function of the innamorati office to be able to sing and take the pop repertoire under their belt. Accounts of the early commedia , as far back as Calmo in the 1570s and the buffoni of Venice, note the ability of comici to sing madrigali precisely and beautifully. The danzatrice probably accompanied the troupes and may have been in addition to the general cast of characters. For examples of strange instruments of diverse grotesque formations, run into manufactures by Tom Heck, who has documented this surface area.

The works of a number of playwrights have featured characters influenced by the commedia dell'arte and sometimes direct fatigued from it. Prominent examples include The Tempest by William Shakespeare, Les Fourberies de Scapin past Molière, Retainer of Ii Masters (1743) by Carlo Goldoni, the Figaro plays of Pierre Beaumarchais, and especially Love for Three Oranges, Turandot and other fiabe by Carlo Gozzi. Influences announced in the lodgers in Steven Berkoff's adaptation of Franz Kafka'southward The Metamorphosis.

Pierrot as "Pjerrot" in Denmark

Through their association with spoken theatre and playwrights commedia figures accept provided opera with many of its stock characters. Mozart's Don Giovanni sets a puppet show story and comic servants like Leporello and Figaro have commedia precedents. Soubrette characters like Susanna in Le nozze di Figaro, Zerlina in Don Giovanni and Despina in Così fan tutte call up Columbina and related characters. The comic operas of Gaetano Donizetti, such equally Elisir d'amore, draw readily upon commedia stock types. Leoncavallo's tragic melodrama Pagliacci depicts a commedia dell'arte company in which the performers discover their life situations reflecting events they depict on stage. Commedia characters also effigy in Richard Strauss's opera Ariadne auf Naxos.

The piano piece Carnaval past Robert Schumann was conceived as a kind of masked ball that combined characters from commedia dell'arte with real world characters, such every bit Chopin, Paganini, and Clara Schumann, also as characters from the composer's inner world.^[49] ^[l] Movements of the slice reflect the names of many characters of the Commedia , including Pierrot, Harlequin, Pantalon, and Columbine.

Stock characters and situations besides appear in ballet. Igor Stravinsky's Petrushka and Pulcinella allude directly to the tradition.

Commedia dell'arte is performed seasonally in Denmark on the Peacock Stage of Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen, and n of Copenhagen at Dyrehavsbakken.^{[ citation needed ]} Tivoli has regular performances, while Bakken has daily performances for children by Pierrot and a puppet version of Pulcinella resembling Punch and Judy.^{[ citation needed ]}

The characters created and portrayed by English language comedian Sacha Businesswoman Cohen (most famously Ali G, Borat, and Bruno) have been discussed in relation to their potential origins in commedia , as Baron Cohen was trained by French master clown Philippe Gaulier, whose other students have gone on to become teachers and performers of commedia .^[51]

Notes [edit]

^ English literal translation: "learned comedies"^[23]

References [edit]

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^ "commedia dell'arte". Lexico United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland English Dictionary. Oxford University Printing. n.d.
^ Commedia dell'arte at the Encyclopædia Britannica
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^ Wilson, Matthew R. "A History of Commedia dell'arte". Faction of Fools. Faction of Fools. Retrieved nine Dec 2016.
^ ^a ^b Rudlin, John (1994). Commedia Dell'Arte An Histrion's Handbook. London and New York: Routledge. p. 48. ISBN978-0-415-04769-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ducharte, Pierre Louis (1966). The Italian One-act: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte. New York: Dover Publication. p. 17. ISBN978-0486216799.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Chaffee, Judith; Crick, Olly (2015). The Routledge Companion to Commedia Dell'Arte. London and New York: Rutledge Taylor and Francis Group. p. i. ISBN978-0-415-74506-two.
^ "Faction Of Fools".
^ ^a ^b Grantham, Barry (2000). Playing Commedia A Training Guide to Commedia Techniques. United Kingdom: Heinemann Drama. pp. 3, vi–vii. ISBN978-0-325-00346-7.
^ Gordon, Mel (1983). Lazzi: The Comic Routine of the Commedia dell'Arte . New York: Performing Arts Journal Publications. p. 4. ISBN978-0-933826-69-4.
^ Broadbent, R.J. (1901). A History Of Pantomime. New York: Benjamin Blom, Inc. p. 62.
^ ^a ^b "Faction of Fools | A History of Commedia dell'Arte". www.factionoffools.org . Retrieved 2016-12-09 .
^ Maurice, Sand (1915). The History of the Harlequinade. New York: Benjamin Blossom, Inc. p. 135.
^ Nicoll, Allardyce (1963). The World of Harlequin: A Critical Study of the Commedia dell'Arte. London: Cambridge University Press. p. 9.
^ Castagno 1994, p. 94.
^ Smith 1964, p. 26, quote: "Atellanae were forced marked by improvisations and masked personages...
^ Duchartre, Pierre (1966). The Italian Comedy. New York: Dover Publications, INC. p. 29. Pulcinella was always dressed in white similar Maccus, the mimus albus, or white mime.
^ Duchartre, Pierre (1966). The Italian Comedy. New York: Dover Publication, INC. p. xviii. Next there is the ogre Manducus, the Miles Glorious in the plays of Plautus, who is afterward metamorphosed into the swaggering Captain, of Captain.
^ Duchartre, Pierre (1966). The Italian One-act. New York: Dover Publications, INC. p. xviii. ...Bucco and the sensual Maccus, whose lean figure and cowardly nature reappear in Pulcinella.
^ Palleschi 2005, Office I.
^ Katritzky 2006, p. 82.
^ Cohen & Sherman 2020, p. 192
^ Rudlin p. xiv
^ ^a ^b Rudlin & Crick 2001, p. fifteen
^ Giacomo Oreglia (2002). Commedia dell'arte. Ordfront. ISBN 91-7324-602-6
^ Katritzky 2006, p. ninety.
^ Katritzky 2006, p. 106.
^ ^a ^b ^c Katritzky 2006, p. 19
^ "Carnival in Venice".
^ Ducharte, Pierre Louis (1966). The Italian Comedy. Toronto: General Publishing Company. p. lxx.
^ Kenley, Thou. E. (2012-11-01). "Il Mattaccino: music and dance of the matachin and its role in Italian comedy". Early Music. twoscore (four): 659–670. doi:10.1093/em/cas089. ISSN 0306-1078.
^ Ducharte, Pierre Louis (1966). The Italian One-act. Toronto: General Publishing Company. p. 74.
^ Ducharte, Pierre Louis (1966). The Italian Comedy. Toronto: Full general Publishing Company. p. 79.
^ McArdle, Grainne (2005). "Signora Violante and Her Troupe of Dancers 1729-32". Eighteenth-Century Republic of ireland / Iris an Dá Chultúr. twenty: 55–78. doi:x.3828/eci.2005.8. JSTOR 30071051.
^ Ducharte, Pierre Louis (1966). The Italian Comedy. Toronto: Full general Publishing. pp. 86–98.
^ Castagno 1994, p.^{[ page needed ]}.
^ Green & Swan 1993, pp. xi–xii.
^ Oreglia, Giacomo (1968). The Commedia dell'Arte. Hill & Wang. pp. 65, 71. OCLC 939808594.
^ Rudlin, An Actor's Handbook. p. 67.
^ Rudlin, An Actor'southward Handbook. p. 34.
^ "Commedia Stock Characters". shane-arts.com. Archived from the original on 2005-02-07. Retrieved 2016-04-05 .
^ Green & Swan 1993, p. 163.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ¹⁰⁰⁰ ^h Rudlin, John (1994). Commedia dell'Arte An Actor'southward Handbook. New York: Routledge. pp. 67–156. ISBN978-0-415-04769-ii.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^{due east} ^f ^grand ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Ducharte, Pierre (1966). The Italian Comedy. New York: Dover. pp. 164–207.
^ Oreglia, Giacomo (1968). The Commedia dell'Arte. Hill & Wang. p. 58. OCLC 939808594.
^ Katritzky 2006, p. 26.
^ Cohen & Sherman 2020, p. 233
^ https://calperformances.org/larn/program_notes/2011/pn_gerstein.pdf^{[ bare URL PDF ]}
^ "Carnaval, Op. ix".
^ Sacha Businesswoman Cohen: How To Prank The Institution. YouTube. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11.

Sources [edit]

Castagno, Paul C. (1994). The Early Commedia dell'arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context. Bern, New York: Peter Lang Publishing.
Cohen, Robert; Sherman, Donovan (2020). Theatre: Brief Edition (Twelfth ed.). New York, NY. ISBN978-i-260-05738-6. OCLC 1073038874.
Greenish, Martin; Swan, John (1993). The Triumph of Pierrot: The Commedia dell'arte and the Modern Imagination. Pennsylvania State Academy. ISBN978-0-271-00928-v.
Katritzky, M. A. (2006). The Fine art of Commedia: A Study in the Commedia dell'arte 1560–1620 with Special Reference to the Visual Records. New York: Editions Rodopi. ISBN978-90-420-1798-6.
Palleschi, Marino (2005). "The Commedia dell'arte: Its Origins, Development & Influence on the Ballet". Auguste Vestris.
Rudlin, John. Commedia dell'arte: An Thespian's Handbook. Ebook Corporation.
Rudlin, John; Crick, Oliver (2001). Commedia dell'arte: A Handbook for Troupes. London: Routledge. ISBN041-520-408-ix.
Smith, Winifred (1964). The Commedia dell'arte. Benjamin Bloom.

External links [edit]

commedia-dell-arte.com – Judith Chaffee'due south Commedia website, with resources, annotated bibliography, and links
Meagher, Jennifer (2007) Commedia dell'arte, Metropolitan Museum of Fine art, July 2007
Bellinger, Martha Fletcher (2002) "The Commedia dell'arte", A Short History of the Drama (1927)
Wilson, Matthew R. (2010) A History of Commedia dell'Arte

fontenotornat1938.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commedia_dell%27arte

Fontenot Ornat1938